What is the constraints-led approach (CLA) to coaching and how can you you use it to develop cricketers?
This is a guide for cricket coaches at every level to using the CLA: Why you would want to, and how you apply it when it is often so different to traditional coaching approaches.
Why listen to me? I am a cricket coach with over 25 years experience at all levels. I am no expert on CLA, nor am I a researcher, but I do have varied experience in applying the approach. This guide is not a set of dogmatic rules. It is a personal account for cricket coaches who have heard a bit about CLA and want a simple practitioner guide.
Let’s get to it.
Why Constraints-Led Coaching?
This section explains why CLA might be for you as a cricket coach. You can skip it if you want to get to actually implementing sessions.
CLA is a set of tools you can use to coach cricket at any level. It’s a new approach to coaching, so it’s unlikely you will have been taught this way. It’s also unlikely a formal coaching course taught you to coach this way. To put it into action you need you to start from a new perspective.
Given this level of commitment, why would you do it?
The strongest argument is transfer of skills from training to games. As we will see, CLA rests heavily upon making practice realistic. This type of practice is more likely to transfer into matches.
There are also a number of other reasons to adopt the approach.
CLA tends to be more fun, engaging and joyful than other approaches. The design of sessions help players become creative, adaptable, effective decision-makers who are self-sufficient on match day. CLA training assumes players learn better if they are motivated to discover solutions themselves. Research backs all this up, and so do my personal experiences.
A warning: Not everyone agrees with the above paragraph. There is much debate in academic circles. However, CLA certainly has a case and lots of support from coaches and academics alike.
In other words, it’s worth a try to draw your own conclusions.
If you are on the fence about trying CLA - and I am assuming you are if you are reading this - then try the recommendations here for a while. Ideally you will dive in to a group for a few months, but at least give it a few weeks. Then check in with players: How much are they enjoying the sessions? What progress are they making? How are they feeling in games?
You can decide for yourself from there.
One final point to remember through this guide is that CLA is not a prescriptive approach. CLA is about exploration by the coach as well as the players. You might find more useful tools in your environment than outlined here. If you do, use them. As we will learn, the environment and those within it shape each other, so to apply external, universal rules is against the very spirit of CLA.
Still thinking about it?
Read on.
What is a constraints-led approach?
A constraints-led approach is a way of coaching built on the underpinnings of ecological dynamics (ED). While it’s not crucial to know the theory, it is important to know where the methods come from.
The core assumption is;
“functional patterns emerge from the interactions between system components or agents” (Davids et al, 2013)
Or to put it in simplified coaching terms; skill emerges from the interaction between players and the environment of conditions, situation and opposition.
Davids et al go on, “humans are surrounded by banks of energy flows or arrays that can act as specifying information variables (e.g., optical, acoustic, proprioceptive) to constrain the coordination of actions with a performance environment. Critical information sources continuously shape intentions and enhance decision-making, planning and organization, during goal-directed activity.”
To simplify again, context is crucial.
The information players need to perform exists within each unique environment. Players improve skill by adapting to this information.
For example, playing a spinner on a turning pitch is a very different environment to playing a seamer on a green top, and gives batsmen, bowlers and fielders different variables. You don’t expect a player good at playing seam to automatically be good at playing spin. This is true for every variable.
In this dynamic, complex environment, “a key goal of learning is to educate the intentions of learners so that they understand the information sources that can be harnessed to support an action... Therefore, when designing learning tasks... it is most important that task protocols sustain the link between intentions and available specifying information to regulate actions.”
And it is here the Constraints-Led Approach to practice design comes in. The CLA, assumes these things to be true and then gives you a framework to design and adapt sessions. The sessions are built on principles of;
Intent. Sessions are focused on setting a problem that players try to fix.
Design the Task. Tools like cones, bat size and points systems are used to designed the task so it directs attention (These tools are the constraints part of CLA)
Representative Design. The more practice is game-like, the more transfer to games. Coaches can slide along a scale depending on player need.
Repetition without Repetition. Practice needs to include variability to make sure solutions can work in different contexts.
In comparison to these principles, most coaches are taught to develop skill on a “textbook” model. Coaches correct errors in stable isolation then put them into the game. If you are to try CLA, forget this model for now. It doesn’t fit.
Instead of a fault-fixer think if yourself as a problem-setter, manipulating the environment using tools - called constraints - for solutions to emerge.
How do you apply a constraints-led approach to cricket?
Time for some nitty-gritty.
What do CLA sessions look like and how do you coach with them?
In CLA, constraints do the work. Your job as coach is to present a game-like problem and use constraints to offer opportunities to solve the problem.
So before every session you need to know:
Intention. What is the problem the players need to solve?
Level. Are the players learning (coordination) or adapting an existing skill?
When you know this, you can come up with your activities. Remember, activities look like the game as much as possible. They are defined by the constraints you use. The obvious example is a cricket net; a way of batting and bowling without needing fielders. This is a constraint. Under CLA, you design activities around such constraints.
However before we get there, we need to know which method we are focusing on:
Explore. Come up with ways to solve a problem.
Exploit. Hone an existing solution.
Execute. Test an existing solution in a highly variable and unstable environment.
Different activities can have a different method depending on player need.
For example, a beginner who can’t bowl with a straight arm. The intention is to keep a straight elbow and also land the ball in a useful area. This player is still at the coordination level (bent elbow) and will start at explore while they try to work out a method.
If they start to keep their arm straight but are still not accurate, they can move to adaptation level and stay at explore to get more accurate. If they are struggling to develop a solution to the straight arm, you might think about moving to exploit and providing some cues and demonstration as a way to direct attention. (The Language of Coaching is great primer for cueing players.)
This informs how you set your constraints.
Constrain to afford (Design the task)
Constraints, broadly, are information sources that draw attention towards solutions. There are three kinds of constraint:
Task. Scoring system, pitch length, bat size, ball type, field settings, nets, feed type
Environment. Surface, weather, opposition
Individual. Confidence, motivation, strength, fatigue.
List your constraints for each activity based on the intention. For example, if you want batsmen to focus on surviving you can allocate points or extra batting time for balls faced without losing a wicket. As well as drawing players towards the intention, constraints allow you to tweak how much of the game you "rub out" to reach your intention
Remember, practice needs to be as close to the game as possible, so make the activity 3 or more out of 10, where 10 is a full game in specific conditions and 0 is fixed, unopposed practice.
Sometimes you want to dial down the realism in order to help progress players. For example, a beginner has no idea how to hit a ball straight: You can dial down to a 1 and instruct them to hit a ball by “swinging through the line” from an underarm feed through cones. This is still CLA. You can dial up for for players who find this too simple.
We also need to build in variability (repetition without repetition). Variable practice contains more of the game than fixed practice so is useful. Research has found that players self-reported level of challenge is best between 4 and 8 out of 10. Too little and players have no freedom to discover and adapt. Too much and players are overwhelmed.
You adjust constraints to manage this challenge level.
For fielding, an 8 could be an activity where a is fielder in unfamiliar conditions, under fatigue and trying to field in a simulated last over of a match against a batsman they have never seen before. They don’t know if the ball will come to them, and when it does come they don’t know how it will arrive.
Highly stable, in contrast, could be an activity with a stationary ball. The fielders knows when it’s their turn and can take as long as they need to get the desired outcome. The variability is 3 out of 10. Simplification is important to “rub out” as many information sources as possible, but you do still want to give players some kind of freedom. So avoid rubbing out too much of the game.
The former activity focuses players on executing their skill under match conditions. It may be too much for some, depending on their level. The latter is useful for players to coordinate and explore solutions. This may be too easy for some. Adjusting the constraints to the needs of the players is all important.
None of these activities are off limits to CLA, it's just that we are trying to have players in an activity that looks and feels like cricket. In other words, use constraints to “tweak the dials” to help the players at their level reach the intention.
Activity Design
An activity, then, is a cricket problem set by the coach. The activity is built using constraints and can be tweaked to match player "age and stage".
As you probably already realised, this makes sessions dynamic and non-linear.
You are not sticking to a set plan, you are constantly scanning your session for players adaptation to constraints. As players respond to the constraints, you can turn up or down the dials. Bring in more realism to get closer to “playing the game”, or simplify the activity.
While you are doing a lot of dynamic adjusting, the basic framework of activities will still look very familiar:
Modified games/middle practice
Nets
Fielding Activity
Much of what you do will be dictated by practical session constraints; what facilities and equipment do you have? How many players and coaches are there? How long have you got? These are hard boundaries for you with operate within.
After that, set up a activities that best meet your intentions. I find it useful to have a checklist that lists:
Intention and level
Baseline activities (such as a net or middle practice) and whether they are explore, exploit or execute. (You don’t need many activities because we change the constraints more than the activities)
Constraints for each activity.
How close the activity can look and feel like the game (R = representativeness) from 0-10
How much variability (V) from 0-10
Once you have this plan, get the session started and get exploring and tweaking with the players.
Example constraints-led approach cricket session
Let's take a typical indoor net session in the UK as an example. Most of the year, this is how UK cricketers practice, and there are clear issues to overcome if you want to apply CLA. Bowlers cannot bowl for long on hard surfaces adf the ball bounce and pace is wildly different from outdoor grass pitches. These are unavoidable problems.
Here is a way I would use CLA.
First, the intention. Let’s say our batters are working on scoring off more balls by rotating the strike. The bowlers intention is to make this difficult by being focused (setting appropriate fields, planning against different batsmen, and committing to the plan).
The players are schoolboy U14s with a range of experiences. They all bat and bowl with no specialists. All are at adaptation level (the can all bat and bowl with some level of success).
We are in a sports hall with 4 net lanes.
There are 2 net games, and 2 bowling only nets.
The first net game is explore (hit the ball into gaps). The aim is to try and put the ball into different areas. It is not game-like (R=3) but does give the batsmen freedom to explore (V=6), albeit against a more consistent feed than a match.
Constraints are;
Ball feed from 16m throwdowns or 20m ball thrower. (Possibly bowling machine if needed although this will drop the V to 4 and the R to 2).
Cones to mark target areas in 6 different angles.
Batsmen must try to score from every ball by an attacking shot though cones.
The second activity is exploit (strike rotation) for batsmen and explore (focus) for bowlers. This dials up the feeling of a game, even though it is still a net. The R=6. As batsmen are facing bowlers there is more variability (7).
The constraints are;
The mission is to score as many points as possible with the bat.
Batters bat for 30 balls each, bowlers bowl in pairs (6 balls each).
U14 bowlers bowl from 18m with a 4.75oz ball.
A chalk marker line is placed on a good length for outdoors. Bowlers attempt to bowl over this.
A whiteboard is used to mark the field.
Batsmen get points for an effective front foot or back foot attacking shot into a gap and drop and runs.
Batsmen get 5 balls they call call any time that gets double points.
Batsmen lose points for a poor decision to go forward, a miss, an edge behind or hitting in the air towards a fielder (as marked on the board) or getting out (bowled, LBW, stumped, hit wicket)
If you want to increase the variability further (for example a strong batsman against a weak bowler) you can add further constraints: swing balls, spin mats, double up mats, a smaller bat or extra stumps.
The bowlers are exploring focus by being asked what they think is focused and unfocused behaviour. They then set a marker for how many deliveries they can stay focused for. The number of balls is tracked to see how close it is to the marker.
Any bowlers who are not in the “live” net are in the bowling net. They can do a modified bowling activity with an aim to maintain focus. This is another explore activity which is much less game-like (R=3, V=4).
The constraints are;
Hit the target areas at different distances.
Target cones/chalk at different lengths and lines (eg. good length, yorker).
Bowling distances set at 16m, 18m and 20m.
If available, a coach can scaffold this activity with technical cues. It’s important not to start giving solutions if you add instruction as this drops the variability down to 0. Cues can be used as a guide to a possible solution, but always try and use constraints that afford rather than insist (i.e.. higher variability).
After the session is complete; review the scores, adjustments to constraints and feedback from the players to decide if the activity was at the appropriate challenge level. Adjust as you see fit for the next session.
Of course, this is one example from an infinite number of configurations depending on the task, environment and individuals. However, hopefully you can see that the CLA gives you an equally infinite adjustable set of dials to match the challenge to the players and see skill emerge as a result.
Summary
CLA is a set of coaching tools based on ecological dynamics: Skill emerges from the environment.
Coaching with CLA is designing practice to set a representative problem for players to solve.
Problems can be about coordination (learning to learn movements) or adaptability. Players can explore, exploit or execute different solutions.
Coaches use constraints to help players discover solutions. Constraints can be based on the task, environment or individual.
Practice looks and feels like the game, with practice constraints adjusted to match the individual stage of the players.
(NB. Huge thanks to Marianne Davies and Danny Newcombe for helping me write this guide by clarifying some of the finer points. The key book for CLA is here. The paper mentioned is Davids et al (2013) “An Ecological Dynamics Approach to Skill Acquisition: Implications for Development of Talent in Sport”)